The earliest record of Chinese theatrical art is to be found in "The Historical Records" compiled by Sse-ma Chien of the Han dynasty. In the chapter on humor, the historian tells the story of Yu Meng, a court jester of the Kingdom of Ch'u in the Period of Spring and Autumn (722-481 B.C.). The prime minister of Ch'u, Sun Shu-ao, knew Yu was a good man and treated him as a friend.
On his deathbed, the prime minister said to his son: "When I am gone, you will not have much to live on. But if you go to Yu Meng and tell him you are my son, he will help you."
The impoverished son sought out Yu, who took him in. The jester dressed himself in Sun Shu-ao's clothes and acted the part of the boy's father. He told the son to imitate him. After a year or so, young Sun had acquired all the mannerisms of his father. No one could tell the difference between them. One day at a banquet, the King was amazed to see a person he took to be the prime minister come forward to toast his health. Once he had heard the whole story, he regretted his cavalier treatment of the son and gave him the land of Chin Chiu as fief. To this day, the word "yu" means a jester.
The most important elements of the Chinese drama are singing and dancing. It is rightly said of the classical theater: "All sounds are sung; no movement is expressed without dancing." Both the music and dance were well developed before written history began.
In ancient times, one of the first steps the reigning emperor of a new dynasty took was prescription of rituals and the writing of music. The practice dates to the exemplary Duke of Chou, who was regent for the youthful Emperor Cheng (1115-1078 B.C.) of the Chou dynasty. Something resembling national anthems emerged at this time. Each of the principalities and dukedoms which Duke Chou brought under the emperor's overlordship had a song of its own. In the time of Spring and Autumn, Prince Chih Tsa of Wu was able to say that the fortunes of a state could be measured by listening to its anthem.
By Confucius' time (551-479 B.C.), music and dance were of excellent quality. When he heard shao, a kind of dance music, on his visit to the state of Chi, he was so fascinated that he abstained from eating meat for three months. He said: "I didn't know one could make music of such excellence."
Historical records of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-221 A.D.) tell of music for the Emperor's worship, music for hunting and music for receiving his subjects. China opened up the vast territories of the west at this time. Musical instruments used by the barbarians were introduced. They included the p'i p'a and fife. Han people watched such entertainment as rope walking, sword swallowing and fire eating, all set to music.
A popular play of the time told of Huang Kung of Tung Hai in the Chin dynasty. In his youth he subdued huge snakes and tigers with his golden sword. He tied up his hair with a red silk band and claimed he could raise clouds and fog. A wave of his sword would supposedly summon a mountain or a river. When he grew old he became addicted to drink and lost whatever powers he may have had. One day a tiger appeared. Huang tried to subdue it but was killed.
Emperor Yang (605-617) of the Sui dynasty was an epicurean. He kept 300 musicians, singers and players at his court in Changan. In the second year of his reign, the chief of the Tu Chueh tribe, Jan Kan, came to pay his respects. The emperor gathered musicians and actors from all over the Middle Kingdom to perform for the barbarian leader. Representatives of neighboring countries subsequently took up the custom of going to Changan for the 15 days of the lunar new year. Outdoor theaters were established outside the Tuan gate and inside the Chien Kuo gate. Stages were built by the roadside and performances given from morning till night. Players were dressed in silks and brocades. Singers and dancers were mostly women. As many as 30,000 players participated. The noise of the drums was heard for miles. At night, the grounds were brightly lighted. People put on animal masks. Some men dressed as women. No plays have survived but the dramas drew vast crowds and were obviously popular.
Puppet shows also date to Emperor Yang's time. Two-foot tall puppets dressed in silk and wearing gold and jade ornaments enacted 72 historical plays at one show given by the Emperor's company.
Dramatic arts flourished during the reign of Hsuan Tsung (713-756) of the T'ang dynasty. A large troupe entertained his favorite mistress, Yang Kuei Fei, in the palace garden, which was given the name of Li Yuan (Pear Garden). Li Yuan thereafter had become synonymous with the theater. Actors and actresses of today are known as "children of the Pear Garden."
The wearing of masks in Chinese drama began in the T'ang dynasty (618-907). One of the plays of this time relates the story of General Wang Chang-kung of the Northern Chou dynasty (557-581). Because of his effeminate appearance, he wore a mask with black lines to give him a ferocious look. This led to the wearing of masks by all actors playing the roles of military men. The face painting of later times grew out of the wearing of masks.
In the Sung dynasty (960-1280) the capital was moved south to Hangchow to get away from the Tartars. Most actors and actresses performing in the old capital of Kaifeng accompanied the court. Sung officials wanted to give the public the impression that all was well. Theaters and other amusements were encouraged. Some 280 Sung dramas are still known. Stage directions and practices are on record.
The Southern drama also flourished at this time. It was the outgrowth of folklore as embellished by the pens of literary men. Some of the plays are extant and the Southern terminology of the theater is still in use. This drama originated with the people and has had considerable influence on the popular theater.
Northern drama was started in the Yuan dynasty (1280-1368). Pushed by the Mongols, the Yuan plays soon were performed throughout the country. Yuan scripts are ranked with T'ang poetry and Sung tse (a rhymed prose) among the best products of Chinese literature. Northern drama is sung only by hero and heroine.
Wang Shih-fu's The West Chamber is a representative Yuan story. Ying Ying and her mother were staying at a Buddhist temple to perform memorial rites for her father. Scholar Chang stopped at the temple on his way to the capital to compete in the national examinations. He was struck by the beauty of Ying Ying, who was accompanied by a servant named Red Maid. He asked the abbot to allow him to stay at the temple. As no respectable girl, of the time could speak to a stranger, Scholar Chang made the acquaintance of Red Maid and used her to carry messages to Ying Ying.
A bandit chief in the neighborhood heard of Ying Ying's beauty and threatened to attack the temple unless she was delivered to his camp. In desperation, the mother offered to marry Ying Ying to anyone who could protect her. Scholar Chang went to a military acquaintance to ask for help and the bandits were driven away.
The mother had no intention of honoring her pledge. She refused Chang's claim to Ying Ying's hand. Red Maid was now carrying many messages back and forth between her mistress and the scholar. When Chang finally asked for a meeting, Ying Ying sent him a stanza which has become an all-time favorite of theatergoers.
Someone waits in the moonlit night,
In the western room with the door ajar.
Across the wall the flower shadows move—
Ah, perhaps my love has come!
Chang went to the rendezvous and spent the evening with his beloved. When the mother found this out, she consented to the marriage, provided Chang first pass the national examinations. He did so and the tale ends happily.
The Northern drama came into disfavor after the Mongols were overthrown by Chu Yuan-chang, first emperor (Hung Wu) of the Ming dynasty. Southern drama returned to the center of the stage. A typical play is Pi Pa Chi (The Lute). The story is as follows:
Tsai Po-chieh bade farewell to his parents and his wife, Wu Niang, and went to the capital to take the national examinations. After passing, he married Prime Minister Niu's daughter and did not return home. His parents died in a famine. Wu Niang cut off her hair and sold it and everything else she had of value to raise money for the burial. She begged her way to the capital and found her husband. They were reunited.
Emperor Hung Wu (1368-98) saw the manuscript and liked it. Through his patronage, the Southern drama flourished. But with popularity came vulgarity. Reaction took the form of a drama which originated in the city of Kunshan in Kiangsu province. Kunshan drama was the product of literary pedants who delighted in using endless literary allusions to express a single idea. With the patronage of scholars, these plays gained a wide hearing. Pedantry and gaudiness of style led to disappearance of the Kunshan drama but not until well after the establishment of the Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1911).
In his reign of 60 years, Emperor Chien Lung (1736-96) made three incognito trips south. Wealthy salt merchants of Yangchow vied with each other in maintaining theatrical companies to entertain him. Troupes performed Kunshan, Northern and other dramas. For the Emperor's 70th and 80th birthdays, the best troupes in the country went to Peking to perform. Some companies remained there, so that Peking came to be the cynosure of Chinese opera players and audiences.
It was at this time that Peiping* opera was born. The new style incorporated many aspects of the other dramas represented by the troupes performing in the capital. Among these were the Shensi school and Erh Huang and Hsi Pi styles. The last two came from Hupeh but were popularized by Anhwei troupes. In contrast to the stilted literary style of Kunshan drama, Peiping drama is written in simple literary language and uses dialogue to a great extent.
The Manchu court patronized Peiping opera. Support also came from scholars. The Peiping style became popular throughout the country. The Empress Dowager Tz'u Hsi kept at least 10 troupes at her court and subsidized others. High officials and rich merchants also maintained companies. In the last days of the Manchu dynasty, such actors as Sun Chu-hsien, Tan Hsin-pei, Kai Chiao-tien, Yang Hsiao-lu and Mei Lan-fang became household words and even gained international renown. "Peiping opera" and "Chinese opera" are synonymous terms for the classical theater of China as now staged in Taiwan. This is the theater that Americans will be seeing live and on television this autumn.
* Peking became Peiping in 1927 when the capital was moved to Nanking.